Lesiones del plexo braquial en adultos: una revisión narrativa de la literatura / Brachial plexus injuries in adults: a narrative review of the literature

La patología traumática del plexo braquial comprende un amplio espectro de lesiones potencialmente devastadoras para la funcionalidad de los pacientes. El objetivo del presente trabajo es realizar una revisión narrativa de la literatura enfocada en el diagnóstico y estudio de las lesiones del plexo braquial en adultos, además de entregar nociones básicas sobre el manejo de esta compleja patología

Traumatic brachial plexus injuries comprise a wide spectrum of lesions that are potentially devastating to the functionality of the patients. The aim of the present review is to perform a narrative review of the literature focused on the diagnosis and study of brachial plexus injuries in adults, in addition to providing basic guidelines on the management of this complex pathology.

Neuroinflammation Mediates Faster Brachial Plexus Regeneration in Subjects with Cerebral Injury / 神经科学通报·英文版

Our previous investigation suggested that faster seventh cervical nerve (C7) regeneration occurs in patients with cerebral injury undergoing contralateral C7 transfer. This finding needed further verification, and the mechanism remained largely unknown. Here, Tinel's test revealed faster C7 regeneration in patients with cerebral injury, which was further confirmed in mice by electrophysiological recordings and histological analysis. Furthermore, we identified an altered systemic inflammatory response that led to the transformation of macrophage polarization as a mechanism underlying the increased nerve regeneration in patients with cerebral injury. In mice, we showed that, as a contributing factor, serum amyloid protein A1 (SAA1) promoted C7 regeneration and interfered with macrophage polarization in vivo. Our results indicate that altered inflammation promotes the regenerative capacity of the C7 nerve by altering macrophage behavior. SAA1 may be a therapeutic target to improve the recovery of injured peripheral nerves.

Transferencias tendíneas alrededor del hombro para paciente con secuelas de lesiones de plexo braquial / Tendon transfers around the shoulder for patient with brachial plexus injury sequels

Resumen: Las lesiones de plexo braquial pueden afectar de forma muy significativa la función de los pacientes. El tipo de manejo va a depender de la severidad de la lesión como también de la localización anatómica de ésta. Las transferencias tendíneas alrededor del hombro han surgido como una alternativa efectiva de tratamiento y por lo tanto, debemos considerarlas cuando nos vemos enfrentados a pacientes que la podrían requerir. Existen diversas técnicas de transferencia, las que se utilizan con más frecuencia son las transferencias de trapecio superior, de dorsal ancho y de trapecio inferior, cada una con sus indicaciones y objetivos específicos según el tipo de paciente. Estas cirugías tienen como propósito disminuir el dolor producto de la hipotonía y subluxación glenohumeral como también mejorar el rango de movimiento del hombro, logrando que el paciente lleve su mano al plano que requiera para realizar sus actividades de la vida diaria. Presentaremos algunas de las técnicas de transferencia tendínea de hombro más utilizadas asociadas a una revisión bibliográfica y una descripción de nuestra experiencia con estas cirugías.

Abstract: Brachial plexus lesions can significantly affect patient function. The type of management will depend on the severity of the injury as well as the anatomical location. Tendon transfers around the shoulder have emerged as an effective treatment alternative, and therefore we should consider them when faced with patients who might require it. There are various transfer techniques, within which the most frequently used are upper trapezium, latissimus dorsi and lower trapezium transfers, each with its specific indications and objectives depending on the type of patient. These surgeries aim to decrease the pain resulting from the hypotonia and glenohumeral subluxation as well as improve the range of movement of the shoulder, getting the patient to take his hand to the plane that requires to perform his daily life activities. We will provide a description of some of the most commonly used shoulder tendon transfer techniques associated with a bibliographic review and a description of our experience with these surgeries.

Restoration of Elbow Flexion in Traumatic Upper Brachial Plexus Palsy in Adults: Outcome with Intraplexus Distal Nerve Transfers in 78 Patients

Objective To present the functional outcomes of distal nerve transfer techniques for restoration of elbow flexion after upper brachial plexus injury. Method The files of 78 adult patients with C5, C6, C7 lesions were reviewed. The attempt to restore elbow flexion was made by intraplexus distal nerve transfers using a fascicle of the ulnar nerve (group A, n » 43), or a fascicle of themedian nerve (group B, n » 16) or a combination of both (group C, n » 19). The result of the treatment was defined based on the British Medical Research Council grading system: muscle strength < M3 was considered a poor result. Results The global incidence of good/excellent results with these nerve transfers was 80.7%, and for different surgical techniques (groups A, B, C), it was 86%, 56.2% and 100% respectively. Patients submitted to ulnar nerve transfer or double transfer (ulnar þ median fascicles transfer) had a better outcome than those submitted to median nerve transfer alone (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference between the outcome of ulnar transfer and double transfer. Conclusion In cases of traumatic injury of the upper brachial plexus, good and excelent results in the restoration of elbow flexion can be obtained using distal nerve transfers.

Correlation between motor function recovery and daily living activity outcomes after brachial plexus surgery / Correlação entre a recuperação motora funcional e as atividades de vida diária após cirurgia do plexo braquial

ABSTRACT Objective To establish the correlation between clinical evaluation of motor function recovery and daily living activities in 30 patients with upper traumatic brachial plexus injury submitted to surgery. Methods The score of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) questionnaire and the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center (LSUHSC) scale were determined in 30 patients. Epidemiologic factors were also examined and correlations were determined. Results There was a significant correlation between the clinical evaluation and the daily living activities after a 12-month period (r = 0.479 and p = 0.007). A direct correlation was observed between the functional recovery of the upper limb and the time between injury and surgery (r = 0.554 and p = 0.001). The LSUHSC scores (p = 0.049) and scores from the DASH questionnaire (p = 0.013) were better among patients who returned to work. Conclusions Clinical evaluation and daily living activities in adult patients who underwent nerve transfer after brachial plexus injury showed significant and measurable improvements.

RESUMO Objetivo Avaliar a correlação entre a avaliação clínica e as atividades de vida diária em 30 paciente adultos com lesão do plexo braquial superior. Métodos O valor do questionário Dash (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand) e da escala Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center (LSUHSC) foram quantificados prospectivamente em 30 pacientes. Fatores epidemiológicos foram também examinados e correlações específicas determinadas. Resultados Houve correlação significativa entre avaliação clínica e as atividades de vida diária 12 meses após a cirurgia (r = 0.479 e p = 0.007). Uma correlação direta foi observada entre a recuperação funcional do membro superior e o tempo entre a lesão e a cirurgia (r = 0.554 e p = 0.001). Os valores da escala LSUHSC (p = 0.049) e do DASH (p = 0.013) foram melhores entre aqueles que retornaram ao trabalho. Conclusões A avaliação clínica e as atividades de vida diária em pacientes submetidos à cirurgia de transferência de nervos após lesão do plexo braquial mostraram correlação significativa.

Objective Predictors of Functional Recovery Associated with Intercostal Nerves Transfer for Triceps Reinnervation in Global Brachial Plexus Palsy

Objective To evaluate the predictors of functional recovery associated with the transfer of intercostal nerves (ICNs) to the branch innervating the long head of the triceps (BLHT). Methods A retrospective analysis of 14 patients with global brachial plexus palsy for whom the surgical planning included the transfer of 2 or 3 ICNs to the BLHT. Results The effective rate of functional recovery for elbow extension was 28%. Surgical timing, severity of the injury, and number of ICNs did not show significance for functional recovery. Patients who underwent ICN transfer for reanimation of elbow extension in combination with phrenic nerve (PN) transfer for reinnervation of elbow flexion, or shoulder stability, obtained poorer results regarding triceps recovery (p < 0.01). Conclusions Intercostal nerves are reliable donors for reinnervation of the triceps in global brachial plexus injuries. However, this technique should be avoided in patients in whom the PN has been transferred for elbow flexion or shoulder abduction.

Objetivos Avaliar os fatores preditores para recuperação funcional associados à transferência de nervos intercostais (NICs) para o ramo do nervo radial que inerva da cabeça longa do tríceps (RCLT). Métodos Análise retrospectiva de 14 pacientes com paralisia completa do plexo braquial, para os quais o planejamento cirúrgico incluiu a transferência de 2 ou 3 NICs para o RCLT. Resultados A taxa de recuperação da extensão do cotovelo foi de 28%. O intervalo cirúrgico, a gravidade da lesão e o número de NICs usados não demonstraram significância para a recuperação funcional. Os pacientes nos quais a transferência de NIC foi usada para recuperação da extensão do cotovelo concomitantemente à transferência do nervo frênico para reanimação da flexão do cotovelo ou para estabilização do ombro obtiveram piores resultados quanto a reinervação do tríceps (p < 0.01). Conclusões Os NICs podem ser utilizados como doadores para reinervação do tríceps em lesões completas do plexo braquial. No entanto, essa técnica deve ser evitada em pacientes nos quais o nervo frênico foi transferido conjuntamente visando a recuperação da flexão do cotovelo ou a estabilização do ombro.

Neurotization of free gracilis transfer with the brachialis branch of the musculocutaneous nerve to restore finger and thumb flexion in lower trunk brachial plexus injury: an anatomical study and case report

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the feasibility of using free gracilis muscle transfer along with the brachialis muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve to restore finger and thumb flexion in lower trunk brachial plexus injury according to an anatomical study and a case report. METHODS: Thirty formalin-fixed upper extremities from 15 adult cadavers were used in this study. The distance from the point at which the brachialis muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve originates to the midpoint of the humeral condylar was measured, as well as the length, diameter, course and branch type of the brachialis muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve. An 18-year-old male who sustained an injury to the left brachial plexus underwent free gracilis transfer using the brachialis muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve as the donor nerve to restore finger and thumb flexion. Elbow flexion power and hand grip strength were recorded according to British Medical Research Council standards. Postoperative measures of the total active motion of the fingers were obtained monthly. RESULTS: The mean length and diameter of the brachialis muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve were 52.66±6.45 and 1.39±0.09 mm, respectively, and three branching types were observed. For the patient, the first gracilis contraction occurred during the 4th month. A noticeable improvement was observed in digit flexion one year later; the muscle power was M4, and the total active motion of the fingers was 209°. CONCLUSIONS: Repairing injury to the lower trunk of the brachial plexus by transferring the brachialis muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve to the anterior branch of the obturator nerve using a tension-free direct suture is technically feasible, and the clinical outcome was satisfactory in a single surgical patient.

Lesiones del nervio torácico largo de Bell. Revisión de conceptos terapéuticos / Long thoracic nerve of Bell. Review of therapeutic management

Las lesiones del nervio torácico producen parálisis del serrato anterior y originan una deformidad característica (escápula alata), que genera debilidad y alteraciones importantes en la movilidad del hombro. En esta revisión, se analizan conceptos sobre anatomía, etiología, presentación clínica y alternativas terapéuticas.

The long thoracic nerve injuries are manifested by a characteristic deformity called scapula alata, causing weakness, and impaired shoulder mobility. In this review current concepts of the anatomy, etiology, clinical presentation and therapeutic management are analyzed.

Humeral internal rotation osteotomy for the treatment of Erb-Duchenne-type obstetric palsy: clinical and radiographic results

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the functional and radiographic results in patients undergoing shoulder anterior soft tissue stretching in association with open reduction and internal rotation osteotomy to centralize the humeral head as a treatment for Erb-Duchenne obstetric palsy sequelae. METHOD: A total of 35 patients underwent this surgical treatment, and the mean follow-up was 4.6 years. The Mallet scale was applied before and after the surgical procedure. A total of 20 patients underwent computed tomography to assess the glenoid version and humeral head subluxation. RESULTS: Functional improvement was achieved, as evidenced by an increase in the Mallet scale score from 12.14 to 16.46 (p<0.001). The correction of retroversion was achieved once the glenoid version ranged from -21.4 to -12 degrees (p<0.001). The humeral head subluxation improved from 6.5 to 35.2% (p<0.001). Patients older than 6 years of age did not achieve glenohumeral joint improvement with respect to dysplastic abnormalities. CONCLUSION: Internal rotation osteotomy in association with the stretching of anterior soft tissues of the shoulder in patients under the age of 7 years provided improvements in the function, retroversion, and subluxation of the glenohumeral joint. .

Surgical treatment of adult traumatic brachial plexus injuries: an overview / Tratamento cirúrgico das lesões traumáticas do plexo braquial em adultos: uma visão geral

Traumatic injuries to the brachial plexus in adults are severely debilitating. They generally affect young individuals. A thorough understanding of the anatomy, clinical evaluation, imaging and electrodiagnostic assessments, treatment options and proper timing of surgical interventions will enable nerve surgeons to offer optimal care to patients. Advances in microsurgical technique have improved the outcome for many of these patients. The treatment options offer patients with brachial plexus injuries the possibility of achieving elbow flexion, shoulder stability with limited abduction and the hope of limited but potentially useful hand function.

As lesões traumáticas do plexo braquial em adultos são severamente debilitantes e, em geral, afetam indivíduos jovens. Uma ampla compreensão da anatomia, da avaliação clínica, dos estudos eletrodiagnósticos e por imagem, das opções de tratamento e do momento apropriado para o tratamento cirúrgico irá permitir que o cirurgião de nervos ofereça o tratamento ideal ao paciente. Os avanços na técnica microcirúrgica melhoraram os resultados para muitos desses pacientes. As opções de tratamento oferecem aos pacientes com lesões do plexo braquial a possibilidade de obter flexão do cotovelo, estabilidade do ombro com abdução limitada e a esperança de função limitada mas potencialmente útil da mão.

Remodelación de la articulación glenohumeral en la deformidad de tipo IV de la parálisis braquial obstétrica: resultados clínicos y morfológicos luego de la liberación extraarticular del hombro y transferencia de los rotadores internos / Remodeling of the glenohumeral joint in type IV deformity of brachial plexus birth palsy. Clinical and morphological results after extra-articular soft tissue release and internal rotator transfers

Introducción: El desbalance muscular no controlado de los rotadores del hombro en la parálisis braquial obstétrica determina una deformidad glenohumeral progresiva. Nuestro objetivo es analizar la función motora y los efectos a nivel articular luego de la liberación anterior extraarticular y la transferencia de los rotadores internos a los abductores / rotadores externos, en los niños con esta secuela. Materiales y métodos: Se evaluaron prospectivamente ocho pacientes menores de 4 años con deformidad glenohumeral de tipo IV de Waters, a quienes se les realizó liberación y transferencia del dorsal ancho y redondo mayor. Se utilizó el puntaje de Mallet modificado y la medición de movimiento, antes y después de la cirugía, con un seguimiento de 30 meses. Resultados: El puntaje de Mallet mejoró de 13 a 18 puntos. La abducción activa mejoró 48º y en todos los pacientes mejoró la rotación externa pasiva. Todos los valores morfológicos mejoraron en forma significativa, salvo en dos pacientes. Conclusiones: La liberación anterior extraarticular del hombro y la transferencia de los rotadores internos a los abductores / rotadores externos mejoran significativamente la función global del hombro y la morfología de la articulación glenohumeral, sin necesidad de realizar una liberación articular.

Secuela de las paralisis obstetricas del hombro / Shoulder deformities and sequelae secondary to brachial plexus birth palsy

Introducción: Es una afección infrecuente; nuestra experiencia consiste en 92 casos tratados en 25 años. Materiales y métodos: De los 92 pacientes operados, 67 presentaron deformidades osteoarticulares y 31, deformidades de las partes blandas. La metodología fue retrospectiva clínico-funcional, analítica y descriptiva considerando las historias clínicas y la valoración personal. Para el tratamiento se utilizó el algoritmo de Bennett y Christopher. Se efectuó en ocasiones la microcirugía temprana del plexo. A los 4 años algunos pacientes pueden requerir cirugías paliativas. Resultados: Con las cirugías del plexo y paliativas, se consiguió, en las lesiones C5-C6, la recuperación hasta en el 80 por ciento de los casos. Tratándose de cuadros distintos no comparables que requieren técnicas diversas, se consideraron los resultados en un porcentual global. Conclusiones: La reparación microquirúrgica del plexo braquial, efectuada en tiempo y forma, mejora los resultados en hasta un 75 por ciento. Agrupamos las secuelas en dos grandes grupos: uno sin alteraciones en la morfología osteoarticular y uno con ellas (displasia glenoidea, retroversión de la cabeza humeral y aplanamiento de la cabeza humeral). Las técnicas originales de Sever y de Sever-L'Episcopo están proscritas. Destacamos la utilidad del procedimiento de Roper efectuado antes de los 5 años de edad. Entre las cirugías del plexo y paliativas se puede lograr, en las lesiones C5-C6, una recuperación de hasta el 80 por ciento.

Comparacion de tecnicas de reconstruccion empleadas en cirugia de plexo braquial entre las lesiones supra e infraclaviculares / Comparison of brachial plexus surgical reconstruction techniques used between supra and infraclavicular lesions

Objective: to compare the thecnical procedures used for reconstruction in different groups of traumatic brachial plexus lesions (TBPL): supra and infraclavicular. Methods: all cases of brachial plexus lesions operated between September 2002 and March 2004 were included. Each case was analyzed separately and included in one of the two groups. Results: a total of 12 lesions were included in this presentation. Out of these, 8 were supraclavicular lesions, wich required neurorraphy in 4 nerves or trunks, neurotization in 11, and neurolisis in one. There were 4 infraclavicular lesions: 4 required neurolisis, and 2 neurorraphy. Conclusion: Eachs group of TBPL required a different surgical reconstruction technique

modified l'epixopo procedure for treatment of residual deformities of the shoulder from obstetric paralysis

Over the past six years, 35 cases of unresolved upper brachial plexus obstetric palsy [BPOP] were treated with Green and Tachdjian modification of the L'Episcopo procedure. All mothers were complaining that their children were unable to bring the palm of their hands to the mouth or perform the usual daily activity tasks without their help. All patients became fully independent when assessed at the follow up. They could dress, wash, attend the toilet, feed and comb better, so that they no longer needed any help in these activities

Técnica de server-L'Episcopo en parálisis del plexo braquial perinatal / Server-L'Episcopo technique in paralysis of the perinatal branchial plexus

Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo de 54 pacientes que consultaron con el diagnóstico de Parálisis Braquial perinatal y que fueron intervenidos quirúrgicamente empleando la técnica de Server-L'Episcopo en el Hospital San Juan de Dios de Caracas, desde el año 1971 hasta el 2do cuatrimestre de 1994. El 75,93 por ciento (41 casos) fueron producto de parto distócico, de los cuales 31 par de parto Instrumental; el 22,22 por ciento producto de partos eutócicos y sólo un caso fue producto de cesárea. El peso promedio al nacer fue de 4,474 gr. El miembro afectado más frecuente por parálisis braquial perinatal fue del superior derecho en un 70,37 por ciento. En la gran mayoría de los pacientes (59,67 por ciento), en los que se empleó la técnica, se obtuvieron muy buenos resultados funcionales tanto en la abducción como en la rotación externa